Preface

0.1 Abstract

Grounded-embodied theories hold that language is understood and remembered through perceptual and motor simulations (i.e., activations and re-activations of sensorimotor experiences). This thesis aims to illustrate simulations of space in memory for language. In four experiments, we explored (1) how individuals encode and re-activate word locations and (2) how word meanings activate locations in space (e.g., “bird” - upward location). In the first part of the thesis (Experiment 1 and 2), we addressed the potential simulation of word locations by probing eye movements during memory retrieval (i.e., “looking at nothing”). In particular, we investigated why and when individuals need to rely on external memory support via simulation of word locations. Experiment 1 results reveal that the propensity to refer to the environment during retrieval correlates with individual’s visuospatial memory capacity. That is, participants with worse visuospatial memory relied more on the environment; whereas, participants with better visuospatial memory relied more on the internal memory sources. Experiment 2 shows that words which are more difficult to remember and, particularly, words that are more difficult to visualise in mind lead to more reliance on the environment during word retrieval. Experiment 1 and 2 suggest that the opportunistic and efficient human mind switches between internal sources and external support as a function of the richness of internal sources and cognitive demands coming from the words to be remembered. The second part of the thesis (Experiment 3 and 4), focuses on spatial simulations triggered directly by words (i.e., language-based simulations). Experiment 3 is a norming study in which raters were asked to associate words with locations in space. Experiment 3 results demonstrate that there is a high degree of agreement among individuals when linking both concrete and abstract words to locations in space although there are no explicit conventions with regard to these associations. Ratings in Experiment 3 indicate potential locations of word-induced simulations. Normed words were used as stimuli in Experiment 4 in which recognition memory for words with spatial associations was probed. Experiment 4 results show that both language-based simulation of space and simulation of word locations dictate memory performance even if space is irrelevant and unnecessary for successful retrieval. In particular, words that were presented in incongruent locations as to the locations they imply (e.g., “bird” in a downward location) were remembered faster than words presented in congruent locations (e.g., “bird” in an upward location). Memory performance deteriorated whenever attention was shifted to the locations simulated with word meanings. Overall, the thesis specifies the mechanics of two different types of spatial simulation in language and their effects on memory. Results and their implications are discussed within the framework of grounded-embodied approaches to language and memory and the extended cognition.

0.2 Acknowledgement

What a roller-coaster of emotions! The thesis you are reading now was made possible through scientific, mental and emotional support of many people, which makes me a very lucky researcher. Here, I would like to name a few, and I apologise in advance to all others that I forgot to mention.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Robin L. Thompson for her never-ending support, meticulous supervision and invaluable insights. She shared my joy during success and she lifted me up during moments of anxiety (which I had a lot). Without her, I could not even imagine realising my dream of doing a PhD in psychology. Thank you for being a great person and a great supervisor. Language and Psychology Lab Group had a huge impact on me as a researcher and the present thesis. I would like to thank Professor Linda Wheeldon for never leaving my questions unanswered, Dr Steven Frisson for his contributions to the present work with his questions and constructive feedback, Dr Katrien Segaert for her support in mixed-effects modelling and for being a role model with her research and lively presentations, Dr Andrew Olson, Dr Andrea Krott and also Professor Sotaro Kita from University of Warwick for their helpful suggestions on the experiments reported in this thesis.

My friends and colleagues here in UK deserve special thanks. Many thanks to Evi Argyriou for providing an inspiring example with her minimalist approach to research and presentation, Freya Atkins for being such a great (lab) mate, Mahmoud Elsherif for our fruitful debates about science and life in general, Isabella Fritz for our discussions in grounded-embodied cognition and R, Anneline Huck from University College London and Beinan Zhou for their support in collecting the pilot data, Linde Luijnenburg for her company at the British Library, Rachel Merchant for her support in recording the auditory stimuli, Kristian Suen for the teamwork in organising Language and Cognition Seminars (LanCoS) and Onur Usta for the library sessions and gallons of coffee.

I would like to acknowledge Turkish Council of Higher Education and Hacettepe University for awarding me with a doctoral scholarship and funding my research. I am grateful to my colleagues and friends at Hacettepe University in Turkey; especially Dr Sinem Sancaktaroğlu Bozkurt, Dr Hilal Erkazancı Durmuş, Dr Elif Ersözlü and Dr Sezen Ergin Zengin for smoothing out the funding process and for their lovely companionship.

I would like to thank all the participants who kindly participated the experiments. It goes without saying that the research could not be conducted without them. I also would like to thank our omniscient post-grad administrator Parveen Chahal for answering millions of questions that I have asked during my years at the School of Psychology.

Last but not least, I am deeply grateful to my mother and sister, who have sent their affection and support from miles away. The majority of the people I mentioned here is woman. A heartfelt appreciation to all women in science!